Myanmar (also known as Burma) is a country in Southeast Asia. It lies on the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea coast with Bangladesh and India to the west, China to the north, and Laos and Thailand to the east.
Regions
States (pyi-ne):
Divisions (taing):
Cities
Other destinations
Understand
History
Like most of Southeast Asia's countries, Myanmar's people and history is a glorious mishmash of settlers and invaders from all fronts. The Mon and the Pyu are thought to have come from India, while the now dominant Bamar (Burmese) migrated through Tibet and, by 849, had founded a powerful kingdom centered on Pagan. For the next millennium, the Burmese empire grew through conquests of Thailand (Ayutthaya) and India (Manipur), and shrank under attacks from China and internal rebellions.
Eventually, Britain conquered Myanmar over a period of 62 years (1824-1886) and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. During the Second World War, Burma was a major battleground as the Allies fought the Japanese for dominance over Asia. The Burma Road was built to get supplies to China. Large parts of Western Burma, particularly the hilly areas bordering India and the city of Mandalay were severely damaged during the war. Independence from the Commonwealth under the name Union of Burma was attained in 1948.
General Ne Win dominated the government from 1962 to 1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and later as political kingpin. Pro-democracy demonstrations in 1988 were violently crushed, with general Saw Maung taking over in a coup and installing the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) to rule the country, now renamed Myanmar.
Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990, with the main opposition party - the National League for Democracy (NLD) - winning a landslide victory (392 of 489 seats). But SLORC refused to hand over power, instead placing NLD leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest, where she remains to this day.
Today Myanmar, a resource-rich country, suffers from pervasive government controls, inefficient economic policies, and rural poverty. The junta took steps in the early 1990s to liberalize the economy after decades of failure under the "Burmese Way to Socialism," but those efforts stalled, and some of the liberalization measures were rescinded. Most overseas development assistance ceased after the junta began to suppress the democracy movement in 1988 and subsequently refused to honor the results of the 1990 legislative elections. In response to the government of Burma's attack in May 2003 on Aung San Suu Kyi and her convoy, the US imposed new economic sanctions against Myanmar - including a ban on imports of Burmese products and a ban on provision of financial services by US persons.
Climate
Cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September). Less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April).
Get in
Visa-free entry is possible at some border crossings - however you must then exit Myanmar via the same border crossing, usually (but not always) on the same day that you enter, and fees apply (typically USD5-10, depending on the crossing).
Otherwise, visas must be obtained in advance by all visitors except ASEAN, People's Republic of China and Russian nationals.
An eVisa service was introduced in 2004, but the website has been unavailable since early 2005.
By plane
The most popular place to get a flight to Myanmar is Bangkok, in neighbouring Thailand.
AirAsia has one daily flight from Bangkok to Yangon (from 2150 baht) and one daily return flight (from 1450 baht).
Bangkok Airways has one daily flight from Bangkok to Yangon and one daily return flight, costing from 3500 baht.
Thai Airways International flies Bangkok to Yangon and back 2-3 times daily from 3500 baht one-way (tickets best bought from a Bangkok travel agency).
Myanmar Airways International operates an all-Boeing fleet linking Yangon with Bangkok, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore.
Air Mandalay flies direct both ways between Chiang Mai (in northern Thailand) and Yangon, and Chiang Mai to Mandalay (but no direct flights in the opposite direction) for about USD80.
Air Bagan flies the Yangon-Bangkok and Yangon-Singapore route. Flights between Yangon and Kunming (via Mandalay) and Yangon and Siem Reap are scheduled to commence soon (August 2007 and October 2007).
Qatar Airways flies from Doha to Yangon (RT), but not Yangon to Doha one-way or RT, with convenient flights onward to most European cities.
Indian Airlines links Yangon with Kolkata, while Mandarin Airlines links Yangon with Taipei. Silk Air links Yangon with Singapore daily. Qatar Airways (QR) flies between Doha and Yangon (3 times a week) and connects to Europe (London, Madrid, Milan, etc.)
By land
Thailand:
As of April 2007 exiting Myanmar by land is impossible. Myanmar Travels and Tours should not be consulted for this- they have misinformed many people in the past. Exit is possible only by plane excpet with special government permission.
China: Foreigners can enter Myanmar via Ruili (in Yunnan), although a permit (as well as a visa) and a guide are needed. Crossing in the opposite direction is more difficult to arrange and details are uncertain.
India: A land border crossing exists between India and Myanmar at Moreh/Tamu. It is uncertain whether foreigners can cross into or out of Myanmar at this crossing. At the least, a foreign (a person who is neither a citizen of India nor a citizen of Myanmar) will need to get a permit to visit the Indian state of Manipur (from India), and a permit to enter or leave Myanmar at Tamu (from Myanmar Travels and Tours. Travelers may also need a permit to travel from Tamu to Kalewa (there are unconfirmed reports that this is no longer required). While there have been confirmed reports of some travelers crossing into Myanmar from India, with their own transport as well as with permits arranged in advance, the general consensus is that obtaining all the necessary permits is very hard.
Bangladesh / Laos: it is not currently feasible to independently cross the borders between Myanmar and any of these three neighbouring countries.
Get around
Myanmar's infrastructure is in poor shape. As a result of the political situation, Myanmar is subject to trade sanctions from much of the western world, and this can cause problems for unwary travellers. Travel to certain regions is prohibited; for others, special permits must be obtained, and a guide/interpreter/minder may be mandatory - although whether these "guides" accompany you to look after you, or to keep you from going to places the government doesn't want you to see, is moot. If you are keen to see Myanmar with a guide,finding a good guide is rather difficult since most of the guides offered by local travel agencies are not always efficient. Find recommendations from your friends or fellow-travelers or forums.Most travelers use travel agencies to book hotels,trains,flights.Local tour operators sell inexpensive package-tours.Some of the reliaable tour operators with long experience are ;
1.Diethelms Travels
DUSIT INYA LAKE RESORT, 37 KABA AYE PAGODA ROAD, MAYANGONE TOWNSHIP,
YANGON, UNION OF MYANMAR.
TEL: (95 1) 652 898, 652 906 FAX: (95 1) 653 182, 652 907
E-mail : leisure@diethelm.com.mm
http://www.diethelmtravel.com
2.Indochina Travel Services
No. 8(A), West Maykha Lane (2),
Mayangone Township, Yangon,
The Union of Myanmar
Tel: (+95) 1 661 724; 662 114; 650 982
Fax: (+95) 1 651 002
Internet : http://www.indochina-services.com
E-mail: info@is-myanmar.com
3.Asian Trails Tour Ltd.
471 Pyay Road
Kamayut Township
Yangon
Tel. (95 1) 510657, 512229, 705982, 705324
Fax. (95 1) 524978
Email. res@asiantrails.com.mm
4.Columbus Travel and Tour Ltd.
586 Strand Road (Corner of Strand Road & 7th Street) Yangon, Myanmar.
Tel : (951) 221881, 229243, 229245, 229927
Fax : (951) 229246, 222790, 524256
E-mail : columbus@mptmail.net.mm, tours@columbus.com.mm
5.Tour Mandalay Co.,Ltd.
No. 02/03, 2nd Floor, Pearl Condominium A, Pearl Centre,
Kaba Aye Pagoda Road, Bahan Township, Yangon 11201,
Union of Myanmar. Tel : (95-1) 540475, 541428, 543801 & 545516
Fax : (95-1) 541098, 548014
E-mail : info@tourmandalay.com.mm,
Internet : http://www.tourmandalay.com
Some of the reliable personal tour guides with well-deserved reputations are
1.Htin Gyi (Spanish-speaking)
2.Chaw Chaw Kyemon (French-speaking)
3.Tin Than Yu (German-speaking)
4.Ba Thein (German-speaking)
5.Than Htun Aung (Italian-speaking)
6.Kyaw Zay Latt (English-speaking)
7.Aung Win (French-speaking).
These guides are available upon request when you buy a package-tour from any local tour operator.
By plane
State-run Myanma Airways (UB) - not to be confused with Myanmar Airways International (8M) "MIA" - is known for its poor safety record. Mandalay Air, Bagan Air and Yangon Airways offer good, regular services between the key tourist centers for reasonable prices - USD40-80. These tickets are easy to buy in hotels and travel agencies in all major cities in Myanmar.
By rail
Myanmar has an extensive rail network, but trains are slow and often delayed, making buses both cheaper and faster. Four to five hours behind schedule on the Yangon-Mandalay run for an express train is pretty standard. Still, a journey on a train is a great way to see the country and meet people. The rail journey from Mandalay, up switchbacks and hairpin bends to Pwin U Lwin, and then across the mountains and the famous bridge at Gokteik, is one of the great railway journeys of the world. Trains in lower Mandalay (Yangon - Pathein and Yangon Mawlymaing) are little communities of their own with hawkers selling everything imaginable. Sleepers are available on many overnight express trains, although, in the high season, you may want to reserve a few days in advance. (NOTE: The Yangon-Mandalay trains now run in the daytime only, apparently because the government does not want trains passing Pyinmana at night.). Food service is available on the express up and the express down between Yangon and Mandalay as well as on the Yangon - Mawlymaing run.
By boat
There is also a large river ferry network. Both are to a large extent run by the government, although there are now some private ferry services. The trip from Mandalay to Bagan takes the better part of a day, from Bagan to Yangon is several days.
By bus
You can also use buses to places you are allowed to visit, and pick-up trucks for shorter distances. Both are mostly payable in kyat and expect to pay some extra for being a tourist. Remember, travel in Myanmar is slow and rough. Expect to pay toll fees, which often add up.
By car
You can hire a private car and driver at reasonable rates to tour independently. The licensed guides at Schwedagon Paya in Yangon can arrange to have a driver with a car meet you at your hotel.But,it is safe to arrange a car through a travel agency;the service fee thay charge is not too small though. You can "test" the driver and the car by driving around the city for 10 or 15 minutes. If you are satisfied, a departure date and time and per diem rates (inclusive of petrol) can be negotiated. Some guides are willing to travel with you to serve as interpreters.
Road travel to tourist destinations is generally safe, although some roads may be rough. Highways are often 2-lane, and cars often pass one another recklessly. Allow two days to drive from Yangon to Bagan in fair weather. Pyay provides a good midway stopover point. Allow a day to drive from Bagan to Inle Lake.
In cities, it is also considered illegal to cross an amber light without stopping. Despite having crossed 3/4 of the way, you will be required to stop in the middle of the road and make your way back in reverse!
Accidents and fatalities are common. Night-time road travel is not recommended, and medical facilities are extraordinarily limited in rural areas. At government hospitals, bribes may be required for expedient services. Make sure needles are new or carry your own. HIV is a major problem in Myamnar.
By bike
In Yangon, riding motorcycles and bicycles is illegal. Mandalay's streets, on the other hand, are filled with both.
On foot
Cars and pedestrians do not follow the established rules, and crossing the road is difficult. It is best to follow the locals when crossing the road.
Talk
The official language of Myanmar is Burmese (known by the government as Myanmar). A majority of Burmese pronunciation is derived from the ancient language of Pali (at the time of the Buddha), but the language is a Sino-Tibetan language related to Chinese and hence tonal (word pitch matters) and analytic (most words are one syllable long).
Myanmar is a former British colony, and as a result - and because English is still being taught in primary schools - some Burmese understand at least some rudimentary English.
Burmese use the Burmese script, based on the ancient Pali script. Bilingual signs (English and Burmese) are available in most tourist spots. Numbers often are also written in Burmese script.
Buy
Myanmar's currency is the kyat (abbreviated K), pronounced "chat". Pya are coins, and are rarely seen. Technically only kyat and FECs are legal tender, but US dollars (USD) and euros very widely accepted and often preferred, but in many cases, payments can only be made in USD notes.
Kyat cannot be exchanged abroad. Bring USD cash, and dispose of remaining kyat before leaving.
Foreign currencies
Visitors must plan carefully and bring enough cash with them to cover their entire visit, as there's no easy way to get more without leaving the country.
Never exchange money in a bank or at the airport as the rates are excrutiatingly uncompetitive: the official rate "floats" around a farcical 6 (yes, six) kyat to the US dollar . In reality, the true (so-called "black market") exchange rate fluctuates considerably around both sides of the 1000 kyat to the USD mark (1350 kyat to the USD in July 2006 in Yangon, slightly less in Mandalay), and dissident newspaper The Irrawaddy (not available in the country) publishes daily exchange rates. Exchanging money on the black market is illegal in theory, but common in practice and easy to do in markets, jewelry shops, travel agents, etc. Exercise due caution. Just bring USD50 or USD100 bills for exchanging purpose.
Western currencies are best exchanged in Yangon, however rates for everything other than USD (and to a lesser extent euro) are poor, hence it's best to convert to USD before entering Myanmar. Both USD and euro can easily be exchanged in most cities; sterling can be exchanged in Yangon and Mandalay, possibly in Bagan.
Foreign currency (including USD) must be in good condition. Torn bills are virtually impossible to change, and the same sometimes applies to notes which have been written on, otherwise marked, or even repeatedly folded. When getting currency from a bank to take to Myanmar, request new notes. Some USD100 bills with certain serial number prefixes (especially "CB") are sometimes regarded as suspect, so it may be better to take USD50 or smaller denominations.
Foreign Exchange Certificates (FECs)
Visitors to Myanmar were previously required to change USD200 into FECs upon arrival, but this was abolished in August 2003. FECs are still valid tender, but should be avoided at all costs as they are no longer worth their face value (although a one FEC note has good souvenir potential).
Credit cards & ATMs
Due to EU and US sanctions, credit cards are rarely accepted in Myanmar. There are places where cash can be obtained with a credit card, however the rates are extremely uncompetitive (with premiums certainly no lower than around 7%, and with quotes of 30% and more frequently reported). An exceptionally small minority of up-market hotels accept credit card payments (and will surcharge accordingly).
Some ATMs can be found in large cities, but these are purely for locals and cannot be used for withdrawing money.
Travellers cheques
Travellers cheques are not accepted in Myanmar. The only exception might be some especially shady money changer - but be prepared to pay an astronomical commission (30% is not uncommon).
Costs
It's quite possible to be comfortable on less than USD20/day. Foreigners will likely be charged fees, including video camera, digital camera, entrance, parking, and zone fees.
What to buy
A popular purchase in Myanmar is lacquerware, which is made into bowls, cups, vases and various items. Beware of fraudulent lacquerware, though, which is poorly made, but looks authentic. Buy from reputable dealers. There is also a wide variety of beautiful silverware and jewellery as well as textiles, including gorgeous silks and handcrafts such as wooden carvings, silk paintings and stonework.
Avoid giving money to beggars in Yangon and Mandalay (as painful as it might be to refuse them) but do buy handcrafts from street vendors and be generous at temples and monasteries. Definitely bargain! It's expected virtually everywhere, even in some of the nicest hotels.
Textiles in Myanmar are stunning. Each region and each ethnic group has its own style. Chin fabrics are particularly stunning. They are handwoven in intricate geometric patterns, often in deep reds and mossy greens and white. They can be quite pricy, perhaps USD20 for the cloth to make a longyi (sarong).
Some items may need customs permits.
Eat
Burmese food is a blend of Chinese, Indian and Mon influences. Rice is at the core of most Burmese food, and good vegetarian food is widely available. Burmese food is often extremely pungent. Food is inexepensive at most restaurants (ranging from K500 - K1500), but those looking for five-star cuisine should eat at hotel restaurants.
What to eat
Because the Burmese cuisine is a medley of many regional influences, it has many characteristics. Seafood is more common along the coastline, while preserved meats are more common in inland areas. Many Indian, Chinese, and Shan dishes are served throughout the country. Some dishes to try are:
Where to eat
Drink
Tap water in Myanmar is not safe to drink, likewise ice may be contaminated. Bottled water is readily available at many tourist sites.
Tea is usually provided free at restaurant tables. While not flavorful, it is boiled water, and so safe to drink (do not drink plain water - even in restaurants - unless it is bottled water).
Alcohol is frowned upon by conservative Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, but consumed widely, mostly among men. Myanmar Beer (lager) is most popular in the country. Other variants, including Mandalay Beer exist. However, many of such companies are government-owned and/or have links to the drug trade. Toddy juice (ta-YEI) is popular in central Myanmar, and is made from fermented palm sugar. An alcoholic drink popular in the Shan State is Shwe le maw, and is reportedly very strong.
Beware of alcoholic drinks served in the far northern states. The locals refer to it as alcohol which does not burn when lit, and it is widely suspected to be an opiate concoction rather than a fermented beverage.
There are a lot of nightclubs, including those attached to the five star hotels (eg Grand Plaza), and also local entertainment centres (eg JJs, Asia plaza).
Sleep
Accommodation is readily available in many tourist locales throughout Myanmar. Hostels and cheap hotels are available throughout the country. World-class hotels are available in Yangon, Bagan, and Mandalay. World-class resorts are available in many resort cities along the coastline and in Inlay Lake.
Hotels often provide complimentary breakfast.
If you want to be a socially conscious traveler, avoid five star hotels. These are all joint ventures with the government, so you will be providing major monetary bonuses to the regime.
Work
Work in Myanmar for foreigners is hard to come by. NGOs and other aid groups do work in capitol and the remote areas of Myanmar, but because of the unstable political situation and the government's edicts, it is difficult to carry out tasks. In addition, several organisations have pulled out of Myanmar, after complaints of the government's continual probes. Foreign companies, mainly based in Singapore, Thailand, and China do operate, but on a small scale. Teaching English is feasible in the city's private schools, but is off-limits in the public education system.
Stay safe
Crime
Myanmar has a dangerous reputation, but it is generally very safe for the visitor, especially in the main tourist areas. You are likely to have your passport checked often, but that should be the extent of your hassles with the government. In the areas of the country you are permitted to go to, the chance of you being a victim of crime is remote. Do not be stupid enough to be involved with recreational drugs while you are there. Myanmar is a major producer.
Since 2005, there has been an increase in street violence (particularly robberies), in major cities such as Yangon and Mandalay. However, it is still a relatively safe city.
However, the area of concern has been in the increase in the number of bombings throughout the country. On 7 May 2005, there was a series of bombings that took place in Yangon, in which many were killed. On 26 April 2005, Zegyo Market in Mandalay was the site of a bomb explosion. On 21 October 2005, a similar explosion occurred in front of Traders Hotel in Yangon. On 5 December 2005, a bomb exploded inside a building in Yangon. On 2 January 2006 (Independence Day), two simultaneous explosions occurred near a school in Bago. The government has put blame on several insurgent organisations, including overseas pro-democracy organisations. However, there is speculation as to whether government-affiliated organisations have been the source of these bombings.
Always be alert and cautious. Yangon's security has been heightened, and in many hotels and office buildings, you may be searched.
That said, Burmese people are incredibly hospitable. After years of isolation, they are happy to see foreign faces. They are generally honest and kind, although sometimes cautious in their choice of discussion topics with foreigners.
Corruption
Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt countries. Officials and other government servants may discreetly ask you for a bribe, or invent issues (missing forms, closed offices, etc) in order to get you to suggest one. Pretending not to understand or asking to speak to a superior may work. However, visitors of Caucasian descent are rarely targeted, while those of Asian descent (including South Asians and East Asians) may be forced to give bribes, but the brunt of the problem hits normal Burmese.
Civil conflict
Various insurgent groups continue to operate in the Shan, Mon, Chin, and Karen States of Myanmar, along the Thai and Chinese borders. Travel to these regions is generally not permitted by the Myanmar government without a permit. In addition, travel to Kayah State and Rakhine State is restricted heavily, due to human rights issues and ongoing conflicts with rebel groups. As a general rule, divisions (Yangon, Bago, Ayeyarwady, Sagaing, Taninthayi, Mandalay, Magwe) are permitted tourist areas.
Politics
Myanmar has been subject to rule by a harsh military junta for much of the past 40 years, and has a reputation abroad for brutally crushing political dissent, as in the case of the frequent house arrests of democracy campaigner Aung San Suu Kyi. When in Myanmar, abstain from political activities and don't insult the government, or at least not when anyone from the government is listening.
Do not try to open a political discussion with a recent acquaintance. People will talk to you after they know you well enough. Also, realize that many phone lines are tapped. As a foreigner, you are safe. The worst thing the government would do to you is expel you. But if you somehow reveal confidential information about the political activities of a local, that local could be in real trouble in Myanmar's notorious jails.
Stay healthy
Tap water is not safe, nor is ice. Always buy bottled water. Tropical diseases such as dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis and malaria are endemic. Drug-resistant strains of malaria and tuberculosis are common in many areas. Hepatitis vaccinations are highly recommended. At restaurants, always use a new pair of chopsticks, although chopsticks generally are not used. Instead, Burmese use Western utensils or, if very traditional, eat with their hands.
Follow the old rule "if you can't fry it, stir it, peel it or boil it - then forget about it".
Respect
The people of Myanmar are very conservative in their dress and behaviour and you should pay special attention to respecting their Buddhist traditions wherever you go, but particularly in temples and monasteries (of which there are thousands). Shorts and sleeveless shirts are frowned upon and in fact, are not allowed in shrines, temples and monasteries. Short skirts are also not recommended. You must also remove your shoes in these locations, so the easiest thing for a tourist is to dress like the locals!
For both men and women, this means a longyi, or wrap skirt similar to a sarong that you can purchase everywhere. They are wrapped in different ways for men and women, so find a local who can show you how to tie them. Also recommended are flipflops (called slippers by the locals) that can be easily slipped off and left at the temple entrance.
Also avoid t-shirts with images of Buddhas or Buddhist imagery, which is considered highly disrespectful.
Give generously at temples and monasteries but be aware that most will not allow women to enter some of the more sacred areas. You can purchase gold leaf that is applied to Buddha statues, but again, women are generally not allowed, so don't make a fuss and respect this tradition!
When praying or paying respects, it is important to ensure that your feet do not point towards the Buddha or towards people. Do not point to images of Buddha. Tuck your feet underneath you when kneeling at shrines and temples.
Tourists of Caucasian descent are commonly referred to as bo, which translates "leader", as a sign of respect. Address elders with U (pronounced "oo", as in soon) or "Uncle" for men, and Daw or "Auntie" for women.
Telephone
International phone calls can be arranged at the Central Telephone & Telegraph Office at the corner of Ponsodan and Mahabandoola Streets in Yangon. International Direct Dial calls are also available at most hotels and at many public call offices (often a phone in a shop). But expect to pay through the nose because international calls are expensive. For example, a call to the US costs about $6 to $7 a minute.
International mail out of Myanmar is reportedly quite efficient. If you have anything of any value mailed in, it may disappear.
Internet
Internet is now widely and fairly cheaply available in most of the tourist areas (especially Yangon, Mandalay, Bagan) but very limited elsewhere, however access is genererally very slow and many sites are inaccessible. Rates are around 1000 kyat/hour in Yangon and 2000-5000 kyat/hour in other tourist areas.
Webmail: all popular free webmail providers are blocked. Many Internet cafés have found ways to circumvent this though so you shouldn't have a problem acessing your webmail if you really need to, provided of course that an Internet café (or electricity for that matter) exists where you are. If you find someone who knows how to access web-mail, make sure you note down what they did - in smaller cities, people know much less about these work-arounds. In any case, never depend on being able to access your email! As of May 2006, the following workarounds worked:
Myanmar (pronounced ), officially the Union of Myanmar (Burmese: pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà nàinŋàndɔ̀) is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. It is also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by many organizations and states.
As the "Union of Burma", Myanmar achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948. It became the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" on 4 January 1974, before reverting to the "Union of Burma" on 23 September 1988. On 18 June 1989, the State Law and Order Restoration Council adopted the name "Union of Myanmar".
Myanmar is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometres (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
Myanmar's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times. Its political system remains under the tight control of the State Peace and Development Council, the military government led, since 1992, by Senior General Than Shwe. The Burmese military has dominated government since General Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of U Nu. Part of the British Empire until 1948, Myanmar continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on Theravada Buddhism intertwined with local elements.
Etymology
The name "Myanmar" is derivative of the local short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. This name was used as early as the 12th century, but its etymology remains unclear. A derivation from the Sanskrit "Brahmadesh", land of Brahma, the Hindu god of creation, is accepted by some scholars, though not all. The adjectival form is "Myanma".
In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city from Rangoon to Yangon. However, the official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanma, did not change. Within the Burmese language, Myanma is the written, literary name of the country, while Bama (from which "Burma" derives) is the oral, colloquial name.
The renaming proved to be politically controversial. Burmese opposition groups continue to use the name "Burma" since they do not recognize the legitimacy of the ruling military government nor its authority to rename the country. Some western governments, namely those of the United States, Australia, Ireland, and Britain, continue to use "Burma", while the European Union uses "Burma/Myanmar" as an alternative. The United Nations uses "Myanmar".
Use of "Burma" and its adjective "Burmese" remains common in the United States and Britain. News organisations, such as the BBC, Wall Street Journal, and The Financial Times, still use these forms. CNN, The Economist, and The New York Times use "Myanmar" as the country name and "Burmese" as the adjective.
History
The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid-900s BCE were dominant in southern Burma.
The Pyu arrived later, in the 1st century BCE, and established several city kingdoms which traded with India and China. The most powerful Pyu kingdom was Sri Ksetra, which was subsequently abandoned in 656 CE. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid-800s were invaded by the Nanzhao kingdom.
The Burmans, or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day Tibet sometime before the ninth century CE. By 849, they had established a powerful kingdom centred on Pagan. During the reign of Anawratha, Burman influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental Southeast Asia were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly called the First Burmese Empire. In the late 1200s, Mongols under Kublai Khan invaded the Pagan Kingdom, but by 1364 the Burmans re-established their kingdom at Ava, where Burmese culture entered a golden age. However, in 1527, the Shan pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the Mon re-established themselves at Pegu, which became a major commercial and religious centre.
Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531 at Taungoo, under Tabinshwehti, who re-unified Burma and founded the Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre. Bayinnaung expanded the empire by conquering the states of Manipur, Chiang Mai, and Ayutthaya. But internal rebellion and lack of resources to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of the Toungoo Kingdom. Anaukpetlun, who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new dynasty at Ava in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon, aided by France, led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.
Alaungpaya established the Konbaung Dynasty and founded the Third Burmese Empire in the 1700s. In 1767, King Hsinbyushin conquered Ayutthaya kingdom. The Qing Dynasty of China, fearful of growing Burman power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. Later monarchs lost control of Ayutthaya, but acquired Arakan and Tenasserim.
During the reign of King Bagyidaw, in 1824, Burmese general Mahabandoola captured Assam, adjacent to British territory in India, leading to the First Anglo-Burmese War. The Treaty of Yandabo in 1826 ceded control of the coastal territories of Rakhine (Arakan) and Tanintharyi to British interests. In 1851, King Bagan imprisoned some British officials for murder, which the British used as an excuse for the Second Anglo-Burmese War. This time, the British annexed the remaining coastal provinces - Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago, naming the territories they now governed as Lower Burma. Under King Mindon Min, Upper Burma skilfully negotiated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. His successor, King Thibaw Min, was not so effective and a series of crises might have led to war but for the moderating hand of Lord Ripon, Gladstone's Viceroy of India (1880-1884) and an arch-Midlothianist determined to halt imperial expansion. In 1885, however, Burmese tax collectors, acting for the King, discovered that the Bombay-Burma Trading Company had been illegally logging and hiding teak in the hope of evading taxes. King Thibaw Min fined the company. This was seen by the new Secretary of State for India, Lord Randolph Churchill, as an insult and direct provocation. Influenced by the commercial lobby which had long pressed for a British takeover of the upper Irrawaddy to open access for British chambers of commerce to the markets of China (and deny them to advancing French colonial power in the region), Churchill used the squabble over timber duties as a pretext to take over what still remained of independent Burma. In November 1885, the Third Anglo-Burmese War was launched with a rapid advance up the River Irrawaddy by the Burma Field Force under the command of Major General Harry Prendergast VC. Mandalay was quickly taken and the royal family were exiled to India, first to Madras and then to Ratnagiri.
Upper Burma was annexed by Churchill as a New Year present to Queen Victoria on 1 January 1886 and reunited with Lower Burma in a single province within British India. The capital may have been captured and the king deported, but Burma had not been defeated and annexation unleashed widespread resistance that proved very hard to control, let alone crush. Not until 1896 was the war finally over, making the Third Burmese War the largest and longest of the "small wars" fought by the British during the 19th century. Kipling's poem 'Mandalay' is now all that most people in Britain remember of it.
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, commanded by Aung San, founded the Burma Independence Army. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan. The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi.
Democratic rule ended in 1962 when General Ne Win led a military coup d'état. He ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the rubric of the Burmese Way to Socialism. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant.
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. In response, General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalized plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years. The NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were annulled by SLORC, which refused to step down. SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the English language in 1989. Led by Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new constitution through the National Convention, which began 9 January 1993. To date, this military-organized National Convention has not produced a new constitution despite well over ten years of operation. In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the National League for Democracy, have been absent or excluded, and little progress has been made. In September of 2006, the U.S. led effort to include Burma on the United Nations Security Council Agenda finally passed allowing the U.N.S.C. to discuss officially how it will deal with the human rights situation in Burma. In January of 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft U.N. Security Council resolution that would have urged Burma to ease repression and release political prisoners. In November of 2006, the International Labor Organization announced it will be seeking charges against Myanmar over the continuous forced labour of its citizens by the military at the International Court of Justice.
:List of historical capitals of Myanmar
:* Bago (The ancient Capital where King Bayintnaung, founder of the 3rd Myanmar Empire, resided. The remains of his palace of KanBawZa Thadi still exist there today.)
:* Pagan
:* Sagaing
:* Ava
:* Shwebo
:* Rangoon (Yangon)
:* Amarapura
:* Mingun
:* Mandalay
Politics
The Union of Myanmar is governed by a military regime. The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the posts of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council" and "Commander in Chief of the Defense Services". General Khin Nyunt was prime minister until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by General Soe Win, after the purge of Military Intelligence sections within Myanmar Armed Forces . The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.
Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), a government-in-exile since December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy. Dr. Sein Win, a first cousin of Aung San Suu Kyi, has held the position of prime minister of the NCGUB since its inception. The NCGUB has been outlawed by the military government.
Major political parties in Myanmar are the National League for Democracy and the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist. The military government allows little room for political organizations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organizations. The military supported the National Unity Party in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organization named the Union Solidarity and Development Association.
Several human rights organizations, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, have reported on human rights abuses by the military government. They have claimed that there is no independent judiciary in Myanmar. The military government restricts Internet access through software-based censorship that limits the material citizens can access on-line. Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are common. The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the military. A strong women’s pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chang Mai. The Women’s League of Burma is the leading women’s civil society organization, an umbrella organization uniting many smaller women’s ethnic organizations into a political force working for democracy and women’s human rights in Burma. There is a growing international movement to defend women’s human rights issues.
In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as 8888 Uprising and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by Senior General Saw Maung's government. The National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed National Unity Party won less than 2% of the seats. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international recognition as an activist for the return of democratic rule, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. The ruling regime has repeatedly placed her under house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by former U.N Secretary General Kofi Annan to Senior General Than Shwe and pressure by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons on the grounds of protecting peace and stability in the country. The junta faces increasing pressure from the United States and Great Britain. Myanmar's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, ten of the United Nations Security Council’s 15 members voted to place Burma on the council's formal agenda. On Independence Day, 4 January 2007, the government released 40 political prisoners, under a general amnesty, in which 2,831 prisoners were released. On 8 January 2007, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon urged the national government to free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi. Three days later, on 11 January, five additional prisoners were released from prison. Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers such as India, Russia, and, in particular, China.
In January 2007, the United States submitted a draft Security Council resolution, backed by the United Kingdom, in an effort to end political repression and human rights violations to the United Nations Security Council. Belgium, France, Ghana, Italy, Panama, Peru, Slovakia, the UK and the US voted in favor of the resolution, while China and Russia vetoed, and South Africa voted against the resolution. Indonesia, Qatar, and the Republic of the Congo abstained. Chinese Ambassador Wang Guangya stated that domestic problems in Myanmar were largely internal affairs, while Russian Ambassador Vitaly Churkin said that the issues would be better handled by other UN organs, such as the Human Rights Council and humanitarian agencies, rather than the Security Council. The Indonesian Ambassador, who abstained from the vote, deplored the situation in Myanmar, but said that ASEAN, did not believe the problems in Myanmar were threats to security and peace in the region.
In the annual ASEAN Summit in January 2007, held in Cebu, the Philippines, member countries failed to find common ground on the issue of Myanmar's lack of political reform. During the summit, ASEAN foreign ministers asked Myanmar to make greater progress on its roadmap toward democracy and national reconciliation. Some member countries contend that Myanmar's human rights issues were domestic affairs of Myanmar, while others contend that Myanmar's poor human rights record is an international issue. Similarly, the European Union has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. Myanmar has close relations with neighboring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner Chevron with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.
Myanmar's armed forces is known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
Myanmar is building a research nuclear reactor near May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) with help from Russia. Myanmar is one of the signatories of nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and IAEA since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.
ASEAN will not defend Myanmar at any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Myanmar if the country was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it was bombarded at any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and ASEAN with the Burmese military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Myanmar and support efforts to bring the situation in Myanmar to the UN Security Council's attention.
Administrative divisions
Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions. Divisions () are predominantly Bamar. States (), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages. Major cities are divided into districts called townships.
Divisions
States
Geography
Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world (after Zambia). It is somewhat smaller than the US state of Texas and slightly larger than Afghanistan.
Myanmar is located between Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Assam, Nagaland and Manipur of India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with Tibet and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). Myanmar is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter. Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas. The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, Thanlwin, and the Sittang rivers. Other trees indigenous to the region include rubber, acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, coconut, betel palm. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.
Economy
Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. Myanmar’s GDP grows only 2.9% annually -- the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralizing economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy. Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign corporations which have partnered with the government to gain access to Myanmar's natural resources.
Myanmar was designated a least developed country in 1987. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the Tatmadaw. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States, Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand.
Economy Today
Today, Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the Irrawaddy River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.
The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country’s total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in Myanmar between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country’s ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas .
The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.
1.1
Inflation is a serious problem for the Burmese economy. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. “Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006,” said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. “Inflation is also correlated with corruption.” Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: “Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis.”
Currency Exchange Rate
Official
1 US$ = ~ 6 Ks
Black Market
1 US$ = ~ 1200 Ks
Tourism
Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in Myanmar. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.
Tourism remains nevertheless a growing sector of the economy of Myanmar. Myanmar has diverse and varied tourist attractions and is served internationally by numerous airlines via direct flights. Domestic and foreign airlines also operate flights within the country. Cruise ships also dock at Yangon. Overland entry with a border pass is permitted at several border checkpoints. The government requires a valid passport with an entry visa for all tourists and business people. Both the tourist visa and business visa are valid for 28 days, renewable for an additional 14 days for and 3 months for business. Seeing Myanmar through a personal tour guide is popular. Travellers can hire guides through travel agencies or contact them for private tours directly.
Humanitarian Aid
In April 2007, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma," outlined the specific efforts of the Burmese government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organizations, including by restricting the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. The military junta passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalized these restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organizations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable.
"The shameful behavior of Burma's military regime in tying the hand of humanitarian organizations is laid out in these pages for all to see, and it must come to an end," said U.S. Representative Tom Lantos (D-CA). U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL) said that the report "underscores the need for democratic change in Burma, whose military regime arbitrarily arrests, tortures, rapes and executes its own people, ruthlessly persecutes ethnic minorities, and bizarrely builds itself a new capital city while failing to address the increasingly urgent challenges of refugee flows, illicit narcotics and human trafficking, and the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases."
Recent Economic Protests
The Burmese military junta detained eight people on Sunday, April 22, 2007 who took part in a rare demonstration in a Yangon suburb amid a growing military crackdown on protesters.
A group of about ten protesters carrying placards and chanting slogans staged the protest Sunday morning in Yangon's Thingangyun township, calling for lower prices and improved health, education and better utility services. The protest ended peacefully after about 70 minutes, but plainclothes police took away eight demonstrators as some 100 onlookers watched. The protesters carried placards with slogans such as "Down with consumer prices." Some of those detained were the same protesters who took part in a downtown Yangon protest on February 22, 2007. That protest was one of the first such demonstrations in recent years to challenge the junta's economic mismanagement rather than its legal right to rule. The protesters detained in the February rally had said they were released after signing an acknowledgment of police orders that they should not hold any future public demonstrations without first obtaining official permission.
The Burmese military government stated its intention to crack down on these human rights activists, according to an April 23, 2007, report in the country’s official press. The announcement, that comprised a full page of the official newspaper, followed calls by human rights advocacy groups, including London-based Amnesty International, for Burmese authorities to investigate recent violent attacks on rights activists in the country.
Two members of Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, Maung Maung Lay, 37, and Myint Naing, 40, were hospitalized with head injuries following attacks by more than 50 people while the two were working in Hinthada township, Irrawaddy Division in mid-April. On Sunday, April 22, 2007, eight people were arrested by plainclothes police, members of the pro-junta Union Solidarity and Development Association, and the Pyithu Swan Arr Shin (a paramilitary group) while demonstrating peacefully in a Rangoon suburb. The eight protesters were calling for lower commodity prices, better health-care and improved utility services. Htin Kyaw, 44, one of the eight who also took part in an earlier demonstration in late February in downtown Rangoon, was beaten by a mob, according to sources at the scene of the protest.
Reports from Burmese opposition activists have emerged in recent weeks saying that Burmese authorities have directed the police and other government proxy groups to deal harshly with any sign of unrest in Rangoon. “This proves that there is no rule of law ,” the 88 Generation Students group said in a statement issued on April 23, 2007. “We seriously urge the authorities to prevent violence in the future and to guarantee the safety of every citizen.”
Demographics
Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million. Current population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983. No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Myanmar since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers. Myanmar has a population density of 75 persons per km², one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being Rohingya, Kayin, and Karenni.
Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The government recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizable populations of Daic, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) peoples. The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population. 10% of the population are Shan.
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