Madagascar is a country that occupies a large island of the same name, located in the Indian Ocean off the eastern coast of Africa. It is famous for pepper, vanilla, and of course the Lemurs.
Cities
The Malagasy people do not pronounce the first and last syllable of many place names. When the French took control of the island, they changed the spelling of many places to match the pronunciation. After Independence, the Malagasy changed it back; but you will still find the "shortened" names in literature et cetera. For example, Antananarivo is often called "Tananarive" or "Tana" for short.
Morondava is a nice little town on the west coast of Madagascar situated at the Mozambique Channel. Some small and comfortable hotels and great food.
Other destinations
Understand
While Madagascar is an island off the coast of Africa, it was originally settled by people from Indonesia. Only later did African and Arab immigrants mix into the population of the island. As a result, Madagascar is a little bit of an oddity when compared to other African nations.
Madagascar was an independent kingdom before it was taken over and made a colony of France.
Get in
As Madagascar is an island, you can only arrive via plane or boat.
By plane
From Europe, the best connections are with Air France, Corsair or Air Madagascar ("AirMad") from Paris to Antananarivo. AirMad also flies from Milan to Nosy Be (a small island off the North of Madagascar).
Travellers from the east typically fly using links from Air Mauritius. However, since 2003 Air Madagascar has a twice weekly service from Bangkok to Antananarivo.
Air Madagascar also operates a weekly service between Nairobi and Antananarivo.
By boat
The only regular link is from Toamasina on the east coast and Mauritius.
Get around
By plane
Air Madagascar serves numerous destinations throughout the country, which is a good thing considering the bad state of the roads. Besides the big cities, lots of little hamlets are also served.
After the events of 2002, many airports were closed, so it is preferable to inform yourself from the company before reserving a flight.
Passengers who arrive in Madagascar on a long-haul flight from Air Madagascar can benefit from reductions on the order of 25% on the company's internal flights.
By train
There are three rail lines in Madagascar :
The Malagasy railway network dating from the colonial period, breakdowns are frequent. It can also happen that a line is closed for several weeks.
There is also a private micheline which assures the link between Antananarivo and Toamasina. This historic train runs only on previous reservation (at least one month in advance) and the price is interesting only if all 18 seats are full.
The train is not the fastest and most comfortable means of travel, but it lets you admire the magnificent landscapes (especially on the line connecting Fianarantsoa to Manakara) and discover the Malagasy fruits and dishes offered at every stop. You can taste what is in season at little cost : crayfish, bananas, cinnamon apples, sambos, zebu sausages, oranges...
Unfortunately, the train that runs between Manakara and Fianarantsoa has become less reliable lately (early 2007) due to poor conditions of the tracks.
By Taxi-Brousse
This is the way most natives travel around the country. There is only one major modern road in the country and that runs from Tana, the capital, to Tulear, a south-western coastal town. Trip between the two towns takes about a day whereas traveling between Tana and Fort-Dauphin, a south-eastern coastal town, would take about 3 or 4 days due to the condition of the road. Travel is cramped and don't expect air conditioning.
By Taxi-Be
In Tana, the cheapest way to get around is by taxi-be, or big taxi, which is a bit larger than a mini-van. There is one aisle with seats to fold down so they can cram in even more people. During peak hours, buses run frequently.
By Boat
If you are looking for an unusual holiday, a yacht charter to Madagascar will not disappoint. You can be sure that your neighbors have not been there and done that…
For those who would like to bareboat, a “guide” is usually included in the price of the yacht charter. Although not obligatory, he comes with the price and is essential for the multitude of services he will provide. He will prepare the food, recommend anchorages, know where to fish and refill the water tanks. He will speak the local language and have an established relationship with the local people. He will protect the boat from theft when you leave it to explore on land. The guide lives completely on the exterior of the boat and does not require a cabin. A yacht charter to Madagascar is a bit of a “Robinson Crusoe” adventure. Once you embark, you will not be able to provision again and must live off the fish and seafood you will catch for yourself (or with your guide). So take great care with your provisioning list.
By Bicycle
Madagascar is a great place to tour by bike and staying in small towns and villages along the way gives a real sense of what the country is all about. A mountain bike or heavy duty tourer at least is required as the roads can be in poor to terrible condition. In rainy season on the East coast the main North-south road can become impassable and at the time I did it we had to walk 2 days over soft sand in one section - this is not an easily rideable route. Generally there is little to no traffic which makes cruising around a great pleasure. The people are amazingly friendly and you'll be greeted with crowds of kids shouting 'Vazaha' in every village.
There are little or no facilities for cyclists, so be prepared to camp rough (ask if it is somebody's land and never too near a family grave) or sleep in very basic guesthouses. Likely you will be invited to stay in people's houses. Bring a spare tyre, puncture kit, chain, brake/gear cable, derailleur and all the tools you need.
Talk
The remarkable thing about Madagascar is that the entire island speaks one language: Malagasy, an Austronesian language. Because the island is so large there are many different dialects. The Merina dialect is the "Official Malagasy" of the island and is spoken around highlands of Antananarivo. Most Malagasies, however, speak Merina across the island. The writing is phonetic so once you learn, it is very easy to do dictation, whether or not you understand what they are saying.
French is the second official language of Madagascar. The government and large corporations use French in everyday business, but 75-85% of Malagasies only have limited proficiency in this language. Malagasies assume that all foreigners are French speakers and therefore can speak several different phrases. Attempts by foreigners to learn and speak Malagasy are liked and even encouraged by the Malagasy people.
Buy
The unit of money is the ariary. This unit preceded the French rule, and Malagasy franc notes had the value in ariary printed on them too (50000 francs = iray alina ariary = one myriad ariary). The ariary is worth about half a U.S. cent.
Vanilla (3 euros for 2 pods France ; about 2 euros for 10 pods in Mada)
Eat
The cheapest way to get a meal is to eat at a "hotely". For about 1300 ariary (or a little less than $1) you can buy a plate of rice, laoka (malagasy for side dish accompanying rice) like chicken, beans or pork, and rice water. For 200 ariary extra you can get a small glass of homemade yogurt.
Bananas (hundreds of varieties) and rice cakes {Malagasy 'bread') are staple 'street food' and available everywhere. Coffee is very good, usually hand-made by the cup and served very sweet with condensed milk.
Steak-frites is available in restaurants in the larger towns.
Drink
There is no safe tap water so be prepared with bottled water. The only other option is rice water (water used to cook rice, which will therefore have been boiled). Particularly important to plan ahead if visiting rural areas.
In towns, roadside drink stands, stores, and bars are plentiful. Most sell a range of drinks including bottled water, Coca Cola and Madagascar's beer, Three Horses Beer ("THB"). You can also try the bubblegum flavored soda 'Bonbon Anglais'.
Sleep
Stay safe
Madagascar is a fairly safe country. You must, however, respect some simple principles:
It should also be noted that, like any other third world country, the presence of beggars never goes unnoticed. This is sometimes uncomfortable for tourists, but these people should be respected none-the-less. They are, predictably, attracted to foreigners and will not hesitate to ask for a hand out. It is recommended that you not give money, but other other useful items, such as a banana, a piece of bread, etc. It is usually accepted with gratitude, and if the beggar is a child, he will run away with a smile on his face.
Stay healthy
While the AIDS epidemic has not reached the devastating level found in many southern African countries, it is widely assumed that the incidence of AIDS is underestimated and rising. You should take no risks and avoid unprotected sex in all cases.
Research malaria prophylaxis options, and follow through.
Respect
Everyday life in Madagascar is regulated by numerous fady (taboos) which vary from one region to another. They can forbid foods (pork, lemur, turtle... ), wearing clothes of a particular color, bathing in a river or a lake. Observance of "Fady" is mostly limited to rural areas, as tourists will most likely not run into this problem if they stay in Antananarivo, Toamasina, Fianarantsoa, or other urban areas.
Fady are attributed to ancestors, to whom Malagasy owe a respectful worship whatever their religion. It is preferable to respect these forbiddings so as not to offend them, even if their well-foundedness is sometimes debatable. Inform yourself about local fady when you arrive in a new place.
Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic), is an island nation in the Indian Ocean, off the southeastern coast of Africa. The main island, also called Madagascar, is the fourth largest island in the world, and is home to five percent of the world's plant and animal species (more than 80 percent of which are indigenous to Madagascar). Most notable are the lemur infraorder of primates, the carnivorous fossa, three endemic bird families and six endemic baobab species.
The adjective for Madagascar is Malagasy (not Madagascan), and the national language is the Malagasy language.
History
Despite its location close to the African continent, the first human settlers of Madagascar appear to have come from Asia, rather than Africa, between 100 and 500 AD. The culture shows the influence of both Africa and Asia. The settlement represented the western-most branch of the great Austronesian expansion. Some of the strongest evidence indicating that the settlers of Madagascar came from this region is linguistic: the Malagasy language belongs to the group of Malayo-Polynesian languages, the rest of which are spoken in the island nations of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean.
The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century, when Arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast and first transcribed the Malagasy into the Arabic-based alphabet Sorabe. European contact began in the 1500s, when Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India.
In 1665, François Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today's Réunion and Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast.
From about 1774 to 1824, it was a favourite haunt for pirates, including Americans, one of whom brought Malagasy rice to North Carolina. Many European sailors would be shipwrecked on the coasts of the island. The most interesting of these is Robert Drury whose journal is one of the only written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.
During the Middle Ages, the chiefs of the different settlements began to extend their power through trade with Indian Ocean neighbors, notably East Africa, the Middle East and India. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centered in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centered in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. But with the domination of the Indian Ocean by the British fleet and the end of the Arab slave trade, the Sakalava would lose their power to the emerging Merina threat. For a short time the Betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified, but this unification was short-lived.
On October 1 1776, the natives of Madagascar elected Móric Beňovský (Matthew/Maurice/Móritz Benyowsky/Benovsky/Benyowszky) King / Emperor (Ampansacabé) of Madagascar on the Mahevelou plane. Among other things, Maurice introduced Latin script for the Malagasy language. (In the history of Madagascar, the King Andrianampoinimerina (1786–1810) is mentioned as the national unifier—in fact he built upon the efforts of the Ampansacabe Beňovský.)
Beginning in the 1790s, Merina rulers succeeded in establishing hegemony over the major part of the island, including the coast. In 1817, the Merina ruler and the British governor of Mauritius concluded a treaty abolishing the slave trade, which had been important in Madagascar's economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to Presbyterianism, Congregationalism, and Anglicanism.
French intervention
France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War (Hova being the name of the Merina aristocrats), seeking to restore property that had been confiscated from French citizens. At the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. The British accepted the imposition of a French protectorate over Madagascar in 1885 in return for eventual control over Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area.
In Europe, meanwhile, diplomats partitioning the African continent worked out an agreement whereby Britain, to obtain the Sultanate of Zanzibar, ceded its share of Heligoland to Germany and renounced all claims to Madagascar in favor of France. In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched to the capital, Antananarivo, where the city’s defenders were taken by surprise, as they were expecting an attack from the much closer east coast. Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended.
Absolute French control over Madagascar was established by military force in 1895–1896, and in 1896 the French Parliament voted to annex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile in Algeria. In December 1904, the Russian Baltic Fleet stopped at Diego Suarez for coal and provisions before sailing on to its doomed encounter with the Japanese Fleet in the Battle of Tsushima. Before leaving port the Russian sailors were required to put ashore the animals they had acquired, including monkeys, boa constrictors and one crocodile.
During World War II, Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria. Immediately preceding the fall of France, Germany initiated planning to forcibly deport all of Europe's Jews to Madagascar in what was known as the Madagascar Plan. Action on the plan was never begun. After France fell to Germany, the Vichy government administered Madagascar. British troops occupied the strategic island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese, after which the Free French took over.
In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, a nationalist uprising was suppressed after several months of bitter fighting with 8,000 persons killed. The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960.
Politics
Madagascar's first President, Philibert Tsiranana, was elected when his Social Democratic Party gained power at independence in 1960 and was reelected without opposition in March 1972. However, he resigned only 2 months later in response to massive antigovernment demonstrations. The unrest continued, and Tsiranana's successor, Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, resigned on February 5, 1975, handing over executive power to Lt. Col. Richard Ratsimandrava, who was assassinated 6 days later. A provisional military directorate then ruled until a new government was formed in June 1975, under dictator Didier Ratsiraka.
During the 16 subsequent years of President Ratsiraka's rule, Madagascar continued under a government committed to revolutionary socialism based on the 1975 Constitution establishing a highly centralized state. During this period a strategy of nationalization of private enterprises, centralization of the economy and "Malgasization" of the education system crippled the economy, leaving traces even today of a highly centralized economic system and a high level of illiteracy. National elections in 1982 and 1989 returned Ratsiraka for a second and third 7-year presidential term. For much of this period, only limited and restrained political opposition was tolerated, with no direct criticism of the president permitted in the press.
With an easing of restrictions on political expression, beginning in the late 1980s, the Ratsiraka regime came under increasing pressure to make fundamental changes. In response to a deteriorating economy, Ratsiraka relaxed socialist economic policies and instituted some liberal, private-sector reforms. These, along with political reforms like the elimination of press censorship in 1989 and the formation of more political parties in 1990, were insufficient to placate a growing opposition movement known as Hery Velona ("Active Forces"). A number of already existing political parties and their leaders, among them Albert Zafy and Rakotoniaina Manandafy, anchored this movement which was especially strong in Antananarivo and the surrounding high plateau.
In response to largely peaceful mass demonstrations and crippling general strikes, Ratsiraka replaced his prime minister in August 1991 but suffered an irreparable setback soon thereafter when his troops fired on peaceful demonstrators marching on Iavoloha, the suburban presidential palace, killing more than 30.
In an increasingly weakened position, Ratsiraka acceded to negotiations on the formation of a transitional government. The resulting "Panorama Convention" of October 31, 1991, stripped Ratsiraka of nearly all of his powers, created interim institutions, and set an 18-month timetable for completing a transition to a new form of constitutional government. The High Constitutional Court was retained as the ultimate judicial arbiter of the process.
In March 1992, a widely representative National Forum organized by the FFKM (Malagasy Christian Council of Churches) drafted a new Constitution. Troops guarding the proceedings clashed with pro-Ratsiraka "federalists" who tried to disrupt the forum in protest of draft constitutional provisions preventing the incumbent president from running again. The text of the new Constitution was put to a nationwide referendum in August 1992 and approved by a wide margin, despite efforts by federalists to disrupt balloting in several coastal areas.
Presidential elections were held on November 25, 1992, after the High Constitutional Court had ruled, over Hery Velona objections, that Ratsiraka could become a candidate. Runoff elections were held in February 1993, and the leader of the Hery Velona movement, Albert Zafy, defeated Ratsiraka. Zafy was sworn in as President on March 27, 1993. After President Zafy's impeachment by the National Assembly in 1996 and the short quasi-presidency of Norbert Ratsirahonana, the 1997 elections once again pitted Zafy and Ratsiraka, with Ratsiraka this time emerging victorious. A National Assembly dominated by members of President Ratsiraka'a political party AREMA subsequently passed the 1998 revised Constitution after a popular referendum. It considerably strengthened the presidency, made impeachments more difficult, and created the autonomus provinces.
In December 2001, a presidential election was held in which both major candidates claimed victory. The Ministry of the Interior declared incumbent Ratsiraka of the AREMA party victorious. Marc Ravalomanana contested the results and claimed victory. A political crisis followed in which Ratsiraka supporters destroyed bridges and cut major transport routes from the primary port city to the capital to isolate the capital city, a stronghold of Ravalomanana support. Sporadic violence and considerable economic disruption continued until July 2002 when Ratsiraka and several of his prominent supporters fled to exile in France. In addition to political differences, ethnic differences played a role in the crisis and continue to play a role in politics. Ratsiraka is from the coastal Betsimisaraka tribe and Ravalomanana comes from the highland Merina tribe.
After the end of the 2002 political crisis, President Ravalomanana began many reform projects, forcefully advocating "rapid and durable development" and the launching of a battle against corruption. December 2002 legislative elections gave his newly formed TIM (Tiako-I-Madagasikara) (I Love Madagascar) Party a commanding majority in the National Assembly. November 2003 municipal elections were conducted freely, returning a majority of supporters of the president, but also significant numbers of independent and regional opposition figures.
Following the crisis of 2002, the President replaced provincial governors with appointed PDSs (Presidents des Delegations Speciales). Subsequent legislation established a structure of 22 regions to decentralize administration. In September 2004, the Government named 22 Regional Chiefs, reporting directly to the President, to implement its decentralization plans. Financing and specific powers for the regional administrations remain to be clarified.
On November 18, 2006 General Fidy supposedly declared a military coup of President Marc Ravalomanana's government though he later denied this action, claiming to have simply openly called for the president to stand down, with no threat of violence.
The December 3 election since went on without incident, re-electing Ravalomanana with 54.80 percent of the vote.
On 4 April 2007, a referendum about a revised Constitution was held. It was approved with 75.33 percent of the votes (24.67 against). There are several major and minor changes in the revised Constitution. Examples: the autonomous provinces are deleted, the term "secular state" (état laïque) is removed from the Constitution, English becomes the third official language alongside Malagasy and French.
The new Constitution entered into force on 27 April 2007.
Government
The principal institutions of the Republic of Madagascar are a presidency, a parliament (National Assembly and Senate), a prime ministry and cabinet, and an independent judiciary. The president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term, renewable twice.
The National Assembly consists of 160 representatives elected by direct vote every 5 years. The last election was held in December 2002.
The Senate consists of 90 senators, two-thirds elected by local legislators and other Grand Electors and one-third appointed by the president, all for 6-year terms. The current term will run out on 1 May 2007. The dissolution of the Senate was part of one the revised Constitution proposals of 2007, but in the final proposal the Senate remains in place.
A prime minister and council of ministers carries out day-to-day management of government. The president appoints the prime minister.
The prime minister and members of Parliament initiate legislation, and the government executes it. The president can dissolve the National Assembly. For its part, the National Assembly can pass a motion of censure and require the prime minister and council of ministers to step down. The Constitutional Court approves the constitutionality of new laws. Madagascar is also part of the Indian Ocean Commission.
Administrative Divisions
Madagascar is divided into six autonomous provinces (faritany mizakatena), and 22 regions. The regions will be the highest level of subdivision when the provinces are dissolved.
:Analamanga :Bongolava :Itasy :Vakinankaratra :Diana :Sava | :Amoron'i Mania :Atsimo Atsinanana :Haute-Matsiatra :Ihorombe :Vatovavy-Fitovinany :Betsiboka :Boeny :Melaky :Sofia | :Alaotra Mangoro :Analanjirofo :Atsinanana :Androy :Anosy :Atsimo Andrefana :Menabe |
The regions are further subdivided into 116 districts, 1 548 communes and 16 969 fokontany.
The major cities have a special status as "commune urbaine", at the same level as the districts.
History
The years after independence 1960, Madagascar had a French-inspired division system.
During the second republic (1975-1991), Madagascar was divided into four levels of government:
#Faritany (province)
#Fivondronana (or fivondronampokontany)
#Firaisana (or firaisampokontany)
#Fokonolona (or fokontany)
Today, there are five different levels of division:
#Faritany mizakatena (autonomous province) (6)
#Faritra (region) (22)
#Distrika (district) (116)
#Kaominina (commune) (1 548)
#Fokontany (16 969)
The constitution of 1992 ruled that the country should be decentralized into territorial entities. The name, number, and limits of territorial entities should be determined by law. The law passed by the national assembly in 1994 defined three such entity levels: region (faritra), department (departemanta) and commune (kaominina). The communes were created in 1996. The existing provinces were not mentioned in the law.
With former president Didier Ratsiraka back in power, the constitution was changed in 1998, to include and specifically mention six autonomous provinces, divided into undefined regions and communes. The autonomous provinces, having the same names and territories as the already existing provinces, were created in 2000. Elections for the six provincial councils were held on 3 December 2000, resulting in an AREMA majority in all provinces except Antananarivo.
During the power struggle after the presidential elections in 2001, five of those provinces, whose governors supported Ratsiraka, declared themselves independent from the republic. The new president, Ravalomanana, replaced the provincial governments by special delegations, appointed by the president. This effectively means that the autonomous provinces have ceased to exist as such, and their dissolution is planned (see below).
In 2004, the regions were finally created by the national assembly in law no. 2004-001. Meanwhile the 28 regions originally proposed had become 22. Although they are subdivisions of the provinces, they are representatives (and representing the people) of the republic, not the province. The regions will also take over the assets of the "ex-Fivondronampokontany". It is also mentioned that the communes are the only entities that are operational, and there will be an unspecified period of transition to the new system. The departments are not mentioned in the law, instead the designation "components" of the regions is used.
Also in 2004, the already existing Fokontany were redefined in the presidential decree 2004-299. They are subdivisions of the communes and headed by a chief designated by the mayor.
In 2005, a new entity called "districts" (distrika) was created by presidential decree 2005-012, replacing the department level of 1994. There are 116 districts. They have the same boundaries as the old "Sous-préfectures" or "ex-Fivondronampokontany". They are defined as subdivisions of the regions, and contains one or more "Arrondissements Administratifs". The chief of a district is designated by the chief of the region.
In the 2007 Constitution the autonomous provinces have been removed. Instead, the regions, the communes and the fokontany (but not the districts) are included.
Geography
At 226,642 mi² (587,040 km²), Madagascar is the world's 46th-largest country and its fourth largest island. It is comparable in size to Kenya.
Towards the east, a steep escarpment leads from the central highlands down into a ribbon of rain forest with a narrow coastal further east. The Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of natural and man-made lakes connected by canals that runs parallel to the east coast for some 300 miles (about 200 km).
On the western side of the island, the descent from the central highlands toward the west is more gradual, with remnants of deciduous forest and savannah-like plains (which in the south and southwest, are quite dry and host spiny desert and baobabs). Although there are many protected harbours on the west coast, silting up, caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion suffered inland in Madagascar, is a major problem.
A central ridge running the length of the island from north to south creates a clear geographical division between the east and west. Along the crest of this ridge lie the central highlands, a plateau region ranging in altitude from 2,450 to 4,400 ft (750 to 1350m) above sea level. The central highlands are characterised by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between barren hills. Here, the red laterite soil that covers much of the island has been exposed by erosion, showing clearly why the country is often referred to as known as the “Red Island."
The central ridge is punctuated by three zones of higher mountain massifs. The Tsaratanana massif in the far north has volcanic mountains and separate Diego Suarez (Antsiranana), with its large natural harbour, from the rest of the island. The highest mountain on the island, Maromokotro, with an altitude of 9,436 ft (2,876 m), is found in this massif. The Ankaratra massif is in the central area south of the capital, Antananarivo and is where the second highest peak on the island, Tsiafajavona, with an altitude of 8,668 ft (2,643 m), is situated. Further south is the Andringitra massif which has several peaks over 8,000 ft (about 2,400 m) including the island’s third and fourth highest peaks, the 8,720 ft (2,658 m) Pic Boby and the 8,626 ft (2,630 m) Pic Bory. Other peaks in the massif, which is where the Andringitra Reserve, include Pic Soaindra (altitude: 8,594 ft, 2,620 m) and Pic Ivangomena (altitude: 8,385 ft, 2,556 m). The Ankaratra massif is the one part of the island where snow is found (above 8,000 ft, 2,400 m) and may remain for several days.
There are two seasons: it is hot and rainy from November to April, and cooler and dry from May to October. South-eastern trade winds dominate, and there are occasional cyclones.
Ecology
Madagascar's long isolation from the neighboring continents (it is the oldest island in the world, isolated for at least 65 million years) has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals.
The eastern, or windward side of the island is home to tropical rainforests, while the western and southern sides of the island, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been preserved generally better than the eastern rainforests or the high central plateau, presumably due to historically less population density and scarcity of water. There has been some slash-and-burn activity, locally called 'tavy', in the eastern and western dry forests as well as the central high plateau, reducing certain forest habitat and applying pressure to some endangered species. Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow periods, the nutrient poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. The resulting increased surface runoff from burned lands has caused significant erosion and resulting high sedimentation to western rivers.
Economy
Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the World Bank. An initial privatization program (1988-1993) and the development of an export processing zone (EPZ) regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991-96 was followed by 5 years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment, driven by a second wave of privatizations and EPZ development. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak and perceived corruption in Madagascar was extremely high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 through 2001, poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar's budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. Following resolution of the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3 percent, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy (the "Taux Directeur", or central bank rate, was raised to 16% and reserve requirements for banks tightened), and growth will reach around 6.5% in 2005.
Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and the donor community. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a "Friends of Madagascar" conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.
In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.
The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in Madagascar in 2002. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organizations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.
The government of President Ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Some recent concerns have arisen about the conflict of interest between the policies pursued by President and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country.
Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism; textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs); agricultural products (the country is the world's leading producer of vanilla, accounting for about half the world's export market); and mining. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, consist the most part of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low volume high value products like vanilla, litchies and essential oils. A small portion of Madagascar's economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin.
There are serval major projects underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga.
Foreign relations
Madagascar, which has historically been perceived as on the margin of mainstream African affairs, eagerly rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. From 1978 until 1991, then-President Ratsiraka emphasized independence and nonalignment and followed an "all points" policy stressing ties with socialist and radical regimes, including North Korea, Cuba, Libya, and Iran. Taking office in 1993, President Albert Zafy expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco.
Starting in 1997, globalization encouraged the government and President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets. External relations reflect this trend, although Madagascar's physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its East African neighbors. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its Indian Ocean neighbors -- Mauritius, Réunion, and Comoros. Active relationships with Europe, especially France, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as with Britain, Russia, Japan, India, and China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Madagascar is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).
President Ravalomanana has stated that he welcomes relations with all countries interested in helping Madagascar to develop. He travels widely promoting Madagascar abroad, and has consciously sought to strengthen relations with Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence.
In November 2004, after an absence of almost 30 years, Madagascar re-opened its Embassy in London. On 15 December 2004 the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, announced the closure of the British Embassy in Antananarivo to save £250,000 a year. He also announced an end to the DFID-funded Small Grants Scheme, the only aid Britain gave to this, one of the world's poorest countries. The Embassy closed in August 2005 despite petitions and protests from African Heads of State, a European Commissioner, the Malagasy Senate, many British companies, 30 or so NGOs operating in Madagascar, and members of the public.
The British Embassy was previously closed (also for financial reasons) from 1975 to 1980. The Anglo-Malagasy Society are campaigning to have it re-opened once again.
Demographics
Madagascar's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian(Pacific Islander) and African origin, though those who are visibly Pacific Islander in appearance and culture are the minority, found in the highland regions. Recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until Austronesian seafarers arrived between about 2,000 to 1,500 years ago. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African stock, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast. The Malagasy language shares some 90% of its basic vocabulary with the Maanyan language from the region of the Barito River in southern Borneo.
Subsequent migrations from both the East Indies and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, and 36 separate tribal groups emerged. Asian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million) ; the coastal people (called côtiers) are of more clearly African origin. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15 percent of the population.
Language
The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. French is spoken among the educated population of this former French colony. English, although still rare, is becoming more widely spoken and in 2003 the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of English into the primary grades of 44 schools, with hopes of taking the project nationwide. Many Peace Corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers.
In the first Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the "official languages of the malagasy republic".
In the new Constitution of 1992, there were no official language recorded. Instead Malagasy was named the "national language". However, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, as they were de facto. In April 2000 a citizen brought a legal case on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the French language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.
In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remains the national language, while official languages are reintroduced: Malagasy, French and English. The motivation for the inclusion of English is partly to improve relations with the neighbouring countries where English is used, and to encourage foreign direct investment.
Religion
Approximately half of the country's population practices traditional religions, which tend to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. The Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana, or "turning over the dead" celebrate this spiritual communion. In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor where sometimes the bodies are lifted and carried high above the celebrants heads with singing and dancing before returning them to the tomb. In the 1800's, it is said that members of the Mkodo tribe would sacrifice young women to man-eating trees, although some argue that these tales may be fabrications.
About 45% of the Malagasy are Christian, divided almost evenly between Catholics and Protestants. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana. The Roman Catholic church is open to its members continuing these practices, while more conservative Protestant denominations tend to condemn them to be superstitions or demon worship that should be abandoned. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches (FFKM) comprised of the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations (Roman Catholic, Reformed Protestant, Lutheran and Anglican).
Islam in Madagascar constitutes about 7-10% of the population. The Muslim traders who first brought Islam had a lasting impact on the people. For example, many Malagasy converted to Islam and the Malagasy language was, for the first time, transcribed into an alphabet, based on the Arabic alphabet, called Sorabe. Many Muslims are concentrated in the provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indo-Pakistanis, and Comorians. Many Malagasy in the southest have been attracted to the call to come back to the religion of their ancestors and the number of mosques in that region has increased from 10 to 50 in the last ten years. Recently, several tribes in Madagascar have been converting to Islam. One particular occasion is the Intimor tribe of the southeast, of which 17,500 converted en-masse .
Culture
Madagascar in Film
Many movies have been filmed on the country or reference is made to it. Some include the 1994 Cuban film Madagascar and the 2005 Dreamworks animation movie Madagascar featuring a few zoo animals from New York who find themselves on the wilderness of the coast. The 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale is featured in the beginning of the movie where James Bond chases a bombmaking terrorist suspect Mollaka through a shantytown, a construction site, and an embassy. Madagascar is set as a location in the Bond movie but was actually filmed in the Bahamas.
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