The Republic of Lebanon لبنان is a small country (10,452 sq km or 4076 sq mi in area with 3.7 million inhabitants) within the Middle East region with its capital at Beirut. It has a long coastline on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and shares a long land border with its much larger neighbour Syria to the north and the east, a much shorter (and currently "hot") border with Israel to the south.
Regions
Lebanon can be divided into 6 regions:
Cities
Many cities in Lebanon have English names which are significantly different to their Arabic names; the romanized versions of the Arabic names in given in parentheses below.
Other destinations
Kadisha Valley and visit the home of the (now deceased) Lebanese poet Khalil Gibran.
Understand
People
The people of Lebanon comprise a wide variety of ethnic groups and religions, with the majority split between Muslim (Shi'a, Sunni) and Christian (Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek-Catholic Melkites, Armenians, Copts). Other smaller groups include Druze and Allawites. There are a large number (over 300,000) of Palestinian refugees in the country.
The population increases dramatically in the Summer months (June to September), due to the large number of tourists from other Middle Eastern countries and the temporary return of a large number of the Lebanese diaspora.
In general, be aware that each group is quite likely to dislike any one of the others and is not going to be circumspect about expressing this. Unless you wish to listen to an embarrassingly vehement diatribe about some group, avoid any comment on politics and, for example, mentioning having visited areas of Beirut associated with another group.
Climate
Lebanon has a temperate Mediterranean climate, with warm, dry summers and cooler, wet winters.
Summer is generally considered the best time to visit, as there is virtually no rain between June and August, and the temperatures range between about 20-30°C (68-86°F). At this time it is very humid on the coast, but dryer and somewhat cooler (but not cold) in the mountains.
Autumn and spring are also good times to visit, with a bit more rain but without the tourist crowds attracted in summer.
Snow falls for a large part of winter in the mountain regions that form a large portion of the country, and there are numerous ski resorts. However, the coast is still relatively mild, with maximums rarely falling below 13°C (55°F).
Time zone
Lebanon is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), and observes daylight savings from end-March to end-October.
Talk
The official language of Lebanon is Arabic. The Lebanese dialect of Arabic is very different from some other dialects, particularly from Gulf countries; however, all Lebanese will understand most other dialects of Arabic.
French is widely spoken and understood, owing to Lebanon's period as a French mandated territory after the First World War. English is increasingly more widely used, especially in the cities, and among the younger crowd. Most young people will understand French, English and Arabic.
See also: Lebanese Arabic phrasebook
Get In
Visas
Non-nationals must have a visa to enter Lebanon. Three-month visas are free for nationals from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Other nationals can obtain a 15-day visa for LL25,000 (US$17), or a three-month visa for LL50,000 (US$35). These visas are single-entry; nationals of many countries can also obtain multiple-entry visas (which cost more). 48 hour transit visas (valid for three calendar days) are issued free of charge.
Visas can be obtained at Lebanese embassies and consulates in other countries, or upon arrival at Beirut airport and other points of entry.
Entry is refused if holding used or unused, expired or valid visa for Israel, or having any Israeli stamp endorsed on passport.
By plane
Beirut International Airport (BEY), is located 5 km (3 mi) south of the city centre) - and is served by regular British Airways services from London Heathrow (LHR), and Air France services from Paris Charles De Gaulle (CDG).
Additionally, the Lebanese national carrier operates to and from major European cities, Cairo, Tunis and Amman - and Royal Morroccan flies from Casablanca, but tickets for these flights can only be booked by phone or in person.
Direct flights from the U.S are banned by the American Government, who have also advised the Canadian Government not to allow the planned Air Canada route from Vancouver for "reasons of national security".
By bus
Irregular, less than comfortable buses are available to Beirut from Damascus, Syria via every single village on the way!
Get around
Lebanon is a small country and it is possible to drive from north to south in under 3 hours. The main means of transport are service taxis, bus and car.
By taxi
The majority of travelers use service taxis to get from place to place. "Service" taxis often operate like buses on set routes between towns and cities, though they can be hired to visit other places with some negotiation. Each taxi carries between 4 (inside Metropolitan areas) to 6 (farther distances) passengers, who share the fare between them. The Fare is 1500 LL (Lebanese Lira) which is about 1 USD $ for short distances of a couple of Kilometers/miles, and increases depending on both distance to be traveled, traffic on that specific road and of course, like everything in Lebanon, persuasion/negotiation skills. A private Taxi ride, without having to share with other passengers is similar to a "Service" Taxi, in that the same pre-negotiation is required to determine the fare, and as a rule of thumb, costs the same as a fully loaded "Service" Taxi (the fare * number of passengers).
Taxi's and "service" taxi's are basically the same, and the mode of operation depends on the availability of passengers and their demands.
The majority of "Service" Taxi's in Lebanon are 1975 Mercedes cars that roam the streets searching for passengers using their car-horns.
Newer car models working as mainly "Service" taxi's are appearing on the Lebanese streets with nevertheless the same price tag as their elder sisters.
All types of public transportation vehicles in Lebanon (Taxi's Buses, mini-vans and even trucks) can be recognized by their Red-colored licence plate.
By bus
Buses travel on set routes between Beirut and most other major towns, though service is infrequent and usually not scheduled. Plans exist to resurrect Lebanon's inter-city bus service, which are slowly being fulfilled.
By train
The Lebanese train system is virtually inoperable since the Civil War. Get a taxi instead!
By car
Car rental is relatively expensive in Lebanon compared to elsewhere in the region. Reasonable, if not exactly cheap rates can, however, be found with perseverance and negotiation and - once you have your rental - fuel is cheap and easy to get.
Lebanon's roads are generally in quite poor condition and Lebanese drivers are not known for their caution and demonstrate very little respect for other road users. Road rules are practically non-existent (apart from driving on the right - well, mostly....), traffic is often jammed in big cities and there are no speed limits. Exercise extreme caution when driving in Lebanon. Note that even in central Beirut, even in areas undamaged by the Israeli assault, there can be massive potholes on busy multi-lane roads (at best you will crack a hubcap if you go over one).
The dangers of driving in Lebanon can't be emphasized enough. Driving in Lebanon should be considered an extreme activity for Western drivers accustomed to safe driving. Law enforcement, traffic lights, traffic control, road markings, street names and rights of way are virtually non-existent in a country of 3 million people but 4 million cars. Mountain driving is particularly hazardous, often involving 1-car roads zig-zagging back and forth up the mountain over shear valleys with no safety barriers. The Lebanese call the valleys along these mountain roads "Wadi Jamajim" (Skull Valley).
Simply trying to park a car is a discouraging activity. The ability to park a car in Lebanon is a tourist attraction in itself, often accomplished in non-existent spaces while under pressure from traffic.
See
Itineraries
Do
Hike
Ski
Lebanon has six ski resorts with groomed slopes, catering to skiers and snowboarders of all levels. Beyond the ski-able domains await you kilometers of cross-country skiing and snowshoeing trails waiting to be explored; Lebanon has something for everyone. Each of the ski resorts has a different flavor; however, it is Faraya Mzaar (Kfardebian) that offers world-class infrastructure and facilities for the tourists, at less then 40 minutes drive from Beirut. Expect a bit of pretentiousness on the part of the Lebanese; many would rather show off their 'chic' ski gear than hit the slopes. Any bit of cloudy overcast will send them off the slopes.
Buy
Currency
The Lebanese currency is the Lebanese pound, abbreviated "LL" or sometimes "LBP". Its value is kept stable relative to the US dollar, with a value of about LL1,500 to US$1. Either Lebanese pounds or US dollars are accepted almost everywhere, and it is common to pay in dollars but receive change in pounds (in which case, make sure you don't get short-changed).
Notes in use are LL1000, LL5000, LL10,000, LL20,000, LL50,000 and LL100,000.
There are LL50, LL100, LL250 and LL500 coins. LL50 coins are virtually never used.
Exchange rates
Correct as of 8 April 2006:
| $ US Dollar | USD$1.00 = LL1,504 | LL1,000 = USD$0.66 |
| £ Pound Sterling | £1.00 = LL2,619 | LL1,000 = £0.38 |
| € Euro | €1.00 = LL1,798 | LL1,000 = €0.56 |
| $ Australian Dollar | AUD$1.00 = LL1,112 | LL1,000 = AUD$0.90 |
| $ New Zealand Dollar | NZD$1.00 = LL1,019 | LL1,000 = NZD$0.98 |
| $ Canadian Dollar | CAD$1.00 = LL1,308 | LL1,000 = CAD$0.76 |
| ¥ Japanese Yen | ¥1.00 = LL12.68 | LL1,000 = ¥79 |
Eat
Lebanon fosters exquisite cuisine ranging from a mezza of vegetarian dishes such as tabouleh, fattoush, and warak anab to delicious dips like hommos and moutabal.
Must haves include Lebanese barbeque such as shish tawouk (barbequed chicken)- usually consumed with garlic, lahm mishwe (barbequed meat, and kafta (another form of barbequed meat).
A full meal at an arabic restaurant can cost as little as 8 us dollars (12000 LL).
"Lebanese fast food" is also available as sandwiches offered in roadside shops, such as shawarma sandwiches (known in other countries as doner - or gyros in greece. Shawarma, as opposed to doner is seasoned with tarator sauce based on sesame oil, vegetables and is rolled in lebanese thin bread). Various barbequed meat sandwiches are also available, and even things such as lamb or chicken spleen, brains, lamb bone marrow or lamb testicles can be served as sandwiches.
Breakfast usually consists of man'ouche which looks like a folded pizza, most common toppings are zaatar (thyme), jebne (cheese) and lahme bi ajin (minced meat). Some new trendy places such as "zaatar w zeit" experiment with new toppings, such as "halloum and bacon". Zaatar w zeit stays open 24 hours a day and partygoers often go there for a bite at 4 in the morning.
Another traditional breakfast food is knefeh; a special kind of breaded cheese that is served with liquid sugar in round bread. It is also served as dessert, but somehow it tastes better in the morning.
Lebanon is also very famous for its arabic sweets which can be found at leading restaurants. The city of Tripoli, however, is THE city for Lebanese sweets. Many critics refer to it as the "Sweet Capital" of Lebanon.
Drink
Lebanon and specially Beirut is famous for the excellent night life.
The choice can vary from international nightclubs such as the famous "Buddha Bar" to many local clubs that cater from teens to seniors.
Favourite areas to go out are "Monot" and "Gemmeyzeh" Streets in "Ashrafieh" area of Beirut and the newly built "down town" area. The downtown area is popular with tourists, particularly Arabs from the Gulf.
For teenagers and as anywhere else, the cool clubbing spots vary by the day but a classic is to see the "B018" (especially popular for cocaine users) in the "Karantina" area of Beirut, or the various clubs at "Monot" Street.
For adults and especially the 30 plus,"Crystal" (Monot Street) is the in place (especially for the extremely rich, pretentious, and arrogant crowd... ie, think of an obnoxious Paris Hilton). Many Christian Lebanese enjoy frequenting "Element" (Ashrafieh), which tends to rarely play any Arabic music. For a sample of clubs that locals frequent, "Al Mandaloun" (Ashrafieh) focuses more on Arab-pop music than Western dance music.
Learn
A handful of private schools, such as the Lycée Français (several branches over the country), the Collège Protestant Français and probably some others follow the official French curriculum. The official French Baccalaureate exams can be taken in Lebanon.
Some schools (such as I.C.)teach English as a first language.
Most schools will have arabic as first language, and French or English as a second language.
The American University of Beirut - AUB is considered the best university in the Arabic middle east. The teaching language there, as in most universities in Lebanon, is English.
Other anglophone private universities are: LAU, NDU ...
Some private universities have French as the main teaching language. Université St.Joseph - USJ is one of these, it is an old and respected institution in Lebanon, and probably offers the best price/quality ratio among private universities in the country. Other francophone private universities are USEK and Balamand.
The Lebanese University is the state owned / public university and is the largest learning institution in the country. It offers virtually free tertiary education.
Work
Gay tourism
Officially, "sexual acts against nature" are illegal in Lebanon under Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code (introduced by the French Mandate), however homosexuality in-and-of itself is not. This vaguely-worded law has been used as justification for raids on bars, houses, and for abusing gays in police custody. No one, however, has been punished under 534 in at least the past 10 years, and before WWII Lebanon had no statutes against homosexuality or homosexual acts. A number of clubs are gay friendly and some others offer gay-themed nights, especially in the Greater Beirut area (and more specifically in the Hamra district and in Sin-El-Fil).
Stay safe
The political situation in Lebanon remains unstable after the "Cedar Revolution" (Syrian withdrawal) of 2005 and the Israeli invasion of 2006. Innocent bystanders have been killed by bombings and assassination attempts directed at politicians, and in Israeli bombing attacks on Hezbullah strongholds. Rallies and demonstrations are common and occasionally - as in any country - turn violent. Land mines and UXO, a legacy of the lengthy civil war, can still be found in some areas. It is recommended you enquire about the political situation in the country before visiting. Currently there are a number of open internal conflicts that pose extreme danger for tourists.
Useful phone numbers:
Stay healthy
As a key destination for health tourism in the region, Lebanon has a professional and private healthcare system. Located mainly in Beirut , key hospitals include:
Respect
Lebanon is a country of many different religious sects. It is recommended to wear modest clothing when visiting religious sites (mosques, churches, etc) and when visiting rural towns and villages. However, Beirut is very much a cosmopolitan city. Clothing considered 'western' is generally acceptable, but Westerners would probably feel more comfortable in Beirut, Mount Lebanon, and along the coast, which is dotted with sea-resorts. In Tripoli, especially in the old city, it is recommanded that women dress conservatively. The same applies on most traditional'souks" in the country. The Southern Suburb of Beirut, known as 'Al-Dahiye' in Arabic, is a Hizbolla stronghold and hence there too it would be advisable that women travellers dress modest. In general, Lebanese are accustomed to different lifestyles and some do not take offence easily, especially with matters related to dress. Other will.
Lebanon (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon follows a special political system, known as confessionalism, meant to distribute power as evenly as possible among different sects.
Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. It was considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East" due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists, to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."
Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 bc), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 bc), and the Bible.
Geography and climate
Lebanon is located in the Middle East. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for the Lebanon-Israel border for . The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations (see Blue Line).
Lebanon has a total area of , making it the 166th largest country in the world. Most of that area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture.
Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 0°C (32°F) during the winter with frequent (sometimes heavy) snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests. The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:
| '''Beirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut. | Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts |
| Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts | North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts |
| Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts | South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts |
Demographics
No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. It is estimated that about 59% are Muslims (Sunni, Shia, and Druze) and 39% are Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic). A small minority of Jews live in central Beirut, Byblos, and Bhamdoun. Lebanon has a population of Kurds (also known as Mhallami or Mardinli), most of whom migrated from northeast Syria and southeast Turkey are estimated to be between 75,000 and 100,000 and considered to be part of the Sunni population. These have in recent years been granted Lebanese citizenship and hence re-tipped the demographic balance in favour of the Moslems and the Sunnis in particular. In addition, many thousands of Arab Bedouins in the Bekaa and in the Wadi Khaled region, whom are entirely Sunnis, were granted Lebanese citizenship.
The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006. Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela and the USA also have large Lebanese communities.
A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (unrwa) since 1948.
Economy
The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.
Agriculture
Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world. Ironically though, Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce, agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors.
Industry
Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,
Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.
Beirut airport (Rafiq Hariri International Airport) re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.
Education
The structure of the Lebanese educational system closely mimics that of the French. Educational institutions in Lebanon can be divided into three types: institutions of general education, vocational and technical education, and higher education. All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all, may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. In general, courses relating to the humanities are taught in Arabic, while those relating to scientific subjects are taught in either English or French according to the student’s preference. The vast majority of Lebanese schools provide mandatory courses in Arabic, English, and French.
Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first English and the first French universities to open in Lebanon respectively. The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.
Compared to other Middle Eastern communities, the Lebanese society has the second highest literacy rate, estimated at 87.4% in 2006. Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean] [[Europe. Not only is Lebanon a distinctive fusion of Christian and Muslim traditions unequaled in the rest of the region, it also serves as the European gateway to the Middle East as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.
Languages
Arabic is the official language of Lebanon. French, too, is widely spoken and was an official language during the French mandate (which lasted until 1943). Spoken Lebanese is quite different from the standard written Arabic language which is taught in schools along with the other foreign languages. English has become very popular in recent years as well,
Cuisine
The Lebanese cuisine combines the sophistication of European cuisines with the exotic ingredients of the Middle East. Some of the most popular local dishes include Kibbeh—a lamb-and-cracked-wheat dish, often grilled or fried—and Tabbouleh, a salad made with cracked wheat, finely chopped parsley, tomato, onions and olive oil. The Lebanese also enjoy eating food from many different regions;
In art, Moustapha Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Charles Khoury is also a very known artist, and he has been awarded many national and international prizes.
Festivals
Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.
Politics
Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism. This system, meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.
This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided in half between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.
The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding). Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".
History
Ancient history
The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.
Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great. After two centuries of Persian rule, Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Greco-Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.
French mandate and independence
Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria, until 1916 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria.
Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.
Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.
1948 Arab-Israeli war
Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded Israel. during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State. Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel and the subsequent war. The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.
Civil war and beyond
In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.
During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982, the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.
After the end of the civil war, Lebanon saw a period of relative calm until the 2006 Lebanon War.
Recent history
Cedar Revolution
Assassinations
On February 14, 2005 former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack, due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Syria denied any involvement.
The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures. On June 3, 2005, the journalist and historian Samir Kassir, also a founding member of the Democratic Left Movement was assassinated by a car bomb. Less than one month later, on June 21, 2005, George Hawi, the former Secretary General of the Lebanese Communist Party was also assassinated by a car bomb in Beirut.
On September 25, 2005, there was a failed assassination attempt on a Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation news anchor, in which May Chidiac lost her left leg below the knee and received severe injuries to her left arm, later resulting in the amputation of her left hand. She later won the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize in 2006. Editor-in-chief and CEO of the An-Nahar newspaper, journalist Gebran Tueni, was assassinated by a car bomb in the suburbs of Beirut on December 12, 2005.
Investigation and proposed UN tribunal
The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report. The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.
International forensic teams identified the vehicle used for the explosion as a Mitsubishi Canter stolen on October 12, 2004 in Sagamihara, Japan. They also concluded that the explosion was most likely detonated by a suicide bomber. the report from this investigation has yet to be published.
The United Nations Security Council and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a Special Tribunal for Lebanon that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death. As of February 6, 2006, however, the Lebanese government has still not ratified the tribunal.
Demonstrations
On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned. In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people, which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.
On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around 1 million people. Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.
In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.
Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. On April 27, 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji and Lebanese Brig. Gen. Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.
Elections
During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), though not allied with the Rafik Hariri Martyr List during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.
The political alliances were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and in others with Amal. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Despite being staunchly anti-Syrian during his 15-year exile, upon his return Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Matn District of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Jumblatt joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Beqaa, as well as the Baabda and Aley districts of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary. On February 6, 2006 Hezbollah signed an understanding of disarmament with Michel Aoun, the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement.
After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament.
On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, leader of the Christian Lebanese Forces, who had spent most of the past eleven years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Émile Lahoud the next day.
2006 Lebanon War
On July 12, 2006, following an operation executed by Hezbollah troops on Israeli territory, Israel launched a massive military operation against the Lebanon-based Hezbollah. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and ultimately led to the death of 1,191 Lebanese civilians and 44 Israeli civilians. Over the course of the war 4,409 were injured in Lebanon and nearly a million were displaced. Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon in a measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from smuggling arms. The blockade was lifted on September 8, and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from Lebanon.
See also
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